Terrestrial locomotion of microscopic robots enabled by 3D nanomembranes with nonreciprocal shape morphing.

Journal: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
Published Date: Jun 17, 2025

Abstract

Microscopic robots exhibit efficient locomotion in liquids by leveraging fluid dynamics and chemical reactions to generate force asymmetry, thereby enabling critical applications in photonics and biomedicine. However, achieving controllable locomotion of such robots on terrestrial surfaces remains challenging because fluctuating adhesion on nonideal surfaces disrupts the necessary asymmetry for propulsion. Here, we present a microscopic robot composed of three-dimensional nanomembranes, which navigate diverse terrestrial surfaces with omnidirectional motion. We propose a general mechanism employing nonreciprocal shape morphing to generate stable asymmetric forces on surfaces. This nonreciprocal shape morphing is realized through a laser-actuated vanadium dioxide nanomembrane, leveraging the material's inherent hysteresis properties. We demonstrate that these robots can be fabricated in various shapes, ranging from simple square structures to bioinspired "bipedal" helical designs, enabling them to directionally navigate challenging surfaces such as paper, leaves, sand, and vertical walls. Furthermore, their omnidirectional motion facilitates applications in microassembly and microelectronic circuit integration. Additionally, we developed an artificial intelligence control algorithm based on reinforcement learning, enabling these robots to autonomously follow complex trajectories, such as tracing the phrase "hello world". Our study lays a theoretical and technological foundation for microscopic robots with terrestrial locomotion and paves a way for microscopic robots capable of operating on surfaces for advanced nanophotonic, microelectronic, and biomedical applications.

Authors

  • Yang Wang
    Department of General Surgery The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology Kunming China.
  • Xing Li
    Department of Nutrition and food hygiene, College of Public Health of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China, 450001. Electronic address: 526924683@qq.com.
  • Chang Liu
    Key Lab of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
  • Yunqi Wang
    Department of Imaging and Interventional Radiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China; CU Lab for AI in Radiology (CLAIR), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. Electronic address: yunqiwang@cuhk.edu.hk.
  • Chunyu You
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Hong Zhu
    Co-Innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China; Cerasus Research Center; College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China.
  • Zhi Zheng
    Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University.
  • Ziyu Zhang
    Radiography and Medical Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. Electronic address: zhangc.ziyu@gmail.com.
  • Guobang Jiang
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Xiang Dong
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Tianjun Cai
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Ziao Tian
    State Key Laboratory of Functional Materials for Informatics, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China.
  • Zengfeng Di
    State Key Laboratory of Materials for Integrated Circuits, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China.
  • Gaoshan Huang
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Xiangzhong Chen
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Enming Song
    Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Intelligent Optoelectronics and Perception, Institute of Optoelectronics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
  • Jizhai Cui
    International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems & State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics, College of Intelligent Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, People's Republic of China.
  • Yongfeng Mei
    Department of Materials Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.

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