Integrating Machine Learning for Propensity Score Matching and Causal Inference: A Causal Forest Approach to Assessing the Impact of Maternal Education on Antenatal Care Utilization

While maternal education is linked to antenatal care (ANC) use, its causal effect remains uncertain. This study applies a machine learning approach, Causal Forests, to estimate the causal impact of maternal education on adequate ANC utilization in Bangladesh. We analyzed data from 6,815 ever-married women aged 15–49 years who had a live birth within five years preceding the 2022 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS). The outcome was adequate ANC utilization, defined as receiving four or more ANC visits from skilled providers. Maternal education was dichotomized as