Daily Rhythms in Blood Glucose: Time-of-Day Forecasts in Type 2 Diabetes

Accurate and interpretable forecasting of blood glucose levels is critical for effective manage- ment of Type 2 diabetes. While complex machine learning models offer high predictive accuracy, their opacity often limits clinical applicability. This study investigates the perfor- mance of a simple, interpretable reference model: the time-of-day mean forecast. The proposed approach divides each 24-hour period into discrete time sequences and, for each sequence, computes the mean glucose value across previous days. This methodology captures intra-day regularities in glucose dynamics and implicitly accounts for circadian influences, such as variations in insulin sensitivity and hepatic glucose production. The model reflects intra-day glucose patterns and identifies clinically relevant periods of elevated variability, such as the postprandial and nocturnal windows. Forecasting performance improves with increased temporal granularity: in 91.84% of the individuals, at least one finer bin size outperformed the naïve baseline. Where, 51% achieved optimal performance using the highest resolution with a 5-minute bin size. Compared to the naïve approach, the 5-minute bin size reduced mean squared error by an average of 12.2%. We have justified the time-of-day approach using a simple mean forecast model, showing that aligning prediction windows with time-of-day patterns enhances forecast accuracy. Building on this foundation, the time-of-day mean forecast serves as a practical benchmark. Future work should explore more complex models that incorporate individual covariates and dynamic temporal dependencies, while maintaining interpretability using the described temporal structure.