Virus-like particles as versatile scaffolds for nanobiosensors and nanoreactors: Design, applications, and future perspectives.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have emerged as highly versatile and programmable nanoscaffolds for the development of advanced biodevices, particularly in nanobiosensing and nanoreactor engineering. This review systematically examines the structural and physicochemical properties of VLPs-such as uniform size, monodispersity, and multifunctionality-that enable their application as high-performance nanobiosensors and nanoreactors. In nanobiosensors, VLPs function as multivalent recognition elements, enhancing sensitivity and specificity across a variety of transduction mechanisms, including optical (fluorescence, chemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance), electrochemical (voltammetric, potentiometric, impedance-based), and field-effect systems. These nanobiosensors excel in detecting biomarkers, pathogens, toxins, and environmental contaminants. As nanoreactors, VLPs provide confined microenvironments that enhance enzymatic stability, facilitate cascade reactions, and enable the spatial organization of multi-enzyme pathways. These nanoreactors show promise in biocatalysis, synthetic biology, and therapeutic applications. Despite significant progress, challenges related to scalability, functional precision, and in vivo compatibility persist. Future directions focus on integrating artificial intelligence, advanced materials, and stimuli-responsive designs to create next-generation smart nanodevices for diagnostics, therapeutics, and sustainable catalysis.