Treatment Effects of Cholinesterase Inhibitors in Alzheimer's Disease: a Causal Machine Learning Approach
Journal:
medRxiv
Published Date:
Feb 12, 2026
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Treatment response in Alzheimer's disease (AD) varies substantially across patients, yet no validated frameworks exist to estimate heterogeneous treatment effects (HTE) from observational data while controlling for confounding bias. METHODS: We developed a causal machine learning framework integrating expert-guided causal graphs, complementary HTE estimators, sensitivity analyses, and policy learning. We applied it to cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) in MCI due to AD to patients from the NACC and ADNI cohorts. RESULTS: Analysing 4,049 patients with 12-month and 2,223 with 36-month follow-up, all estimators indicated null or negative long-term ChEI effects on cognitive and functional outcomes, notably on functional measures. ChEIs showed slightly more deleterious effects among men than women. DISCUSSION: This framework provides a methodology for estimating HTE from observational data. It revealed no beneficial responder subgroups, highlighting the challenge of detecting treatment heterogeneity in moderately sized cohorts. This approach can inform treatment selection for other AD therapies including memantine, anti-amyloid agents, and emerging treatments.
