Expansion of CKD diagnostics through biosensor technology: An early detection approach.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a complicated global health disease that causes serious health issues like kidney failure and heart-related problems. These complications make the conditions worse for the patients and also increase the mortality rate globally, which is 41.5% since 1990. Most individuals are not aware that they have renal disease until it is highly advanced because it doesn't show any symptoms in its early stages. The prevalence of CKD is higher than average, and replacement therapy is required for the majority of individuals who have reached stage 5. Various diagnostic techniques have been developed for the detection of CKD, but they are not user-friendly and are much costlier. Therefore, the early detection of CKD through biosensor-based techniques has been used to decrease the overall burden to prevent patients from developing serious renal problems. The emergence of biosensors is one of the most promising solutions, offering a cost-effective and precise method for the early detection of various diseases. In this review, we have systematically compiled the current data since the last ten years (2015-2025), complications, traditional vs modern techniques, recent biomarkers and biosensor-based techniques, which include various classes of biosensors, including electrochemical, optical, fluorescent/colorimetric, and AI-assisted biosensors.