G-quadruplexes and i-motifs: Emerging regulatory elements in plant genomes.

G-quadruplexes (G4s) and i-motifs (iMs) are emerging as key cis-regulatory elements in plant genomes, functioning at both DNA and RNA levels. This review summarizes recent progress in their identification and prediction, including sequencing-based detection and computational approaches. We particularly highlight Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven methods due to their higher prediction accuracy. These structures are widely distributed in plants, especially in promoter and untranslated regions (UTRs), and accumulating evidence suggests that they play pivotal roles in both transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation. However, functional studies of G4s and iMs in plants remain limited compared to animals. Further in-depth investigation into their mechanisms will not only advance our understanding of plant gene regulation but also provide new opportunities for crop improvement.