Designing McKibben muscles: a critical review for practical implementation.

McKibben artificial muscles (AMs) are known as a prominent class of pneumatic actuators in soft robotics and biomechanical engineering, due to their unique structure and multifunctionality. This paper presents a comprehensive review of recent advancements in McKibben AMs, focusing on their performance, structural variations, and operational principles. A systematic literature search on Scopus identified 146 relevant articles, which were analysed for both performance metrics and design characteristics. Inspired by natural muscle behaviour, McKibben AMs enable complex motions such as bending, linear extension, and twisting. These actuators can be organised as individual or bundled systems: individual units are typically arranged in linear or circular patterns, while bundled systems occur in serial, parallel, braided, convergent, or pennate configurations. Recent innovations in smart actuation methods, braided sleeves and internal bladders have expanded their capabilities, enabling embedded sensing, environmental adaptability and untethered operation. Additionally, alternative manufacturing methods offer promising solutions for developing McKibben muscles with enhanced functionality and tailored properties.