Advancing nanomaterials for treatment of eye diseases: a review.

Ocular diseases involving both the anterior and posterior segments-such as dry eye disease, keratitis, glaucoma, cataracts, diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, and ocular tumors-remain major contributors to global visual impairment. Conventional topical and systemic therapies are limited by rapid clearance, restricted penetration across ocular barriers, and poor bioavailability, particularly for posterior-segment targets. Nanotechnology has introduced a transformative therapeutic paradigm by enabling controlled pharmacokinetics, enhanced tissue penetration, and site-specific delivery. A wide range of engineered nanomaterials-including polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based carriers, dendrimers, metallic and metal-oxide nanoparticles, mesoporous silica systems, cerium oxide nanozymes, carbon quantum dots, nanogels, and electrospun nanofibers-has demonstrated improved drug loading, sustained release, ocular surface retention, and compatibility with biologics and gene-based agents. Emerging minimally invasive platforms, such as 4D printed smart scaffolds, dissolving microneedles and magnetically driven microrobots, further enable precise transscleral or intravitreal delivery, active navigation through the vitreous, and targeted interaction with retinal lesions. Parallel clinical advances, including FDA-approved nanoformulations and ongoing trials, confirm the translational potential of these technologies. Plus, artificial intelligence now accelerates both ophthalmic diagnosis and nanocarrier design, enabling predictive modeling of nano-bio interactions, personalized delivery strategies, and real-time disease assessment. This review integrates current advances in nanomaterial engineering and AI-guided innovation, outlining their convergent roles in shaping next-generation precision therapeutics for vision preservation and restoration.